哈斯特鹰
        近期发表于新西兰《生物公共图书馆杂志》上的一项化石DNA研究结果证实，有史以来最大的食肉鸟类之一，目前已经灭亡的一种巨鹰，曾经是新西兰岛上最主要的食肉动物，与现在世界上最小的鹰源于同一祖先。
         参与该研究的科学家来自英国牛津大学和新西兰的坎特伯雷大学。研究小组由牛津大学古生物分子中心的艾伦-库珀领导，科学家从2000年前的鹰化石中提取DNA。
        最初试验的目的是为了证明哈斯特鹰和澳洲楔尾鹰的关系。但是，DNA检测结果让科学家们大吃一惊，证明新西兰鸟类事实上和世界最小的鹰有基因上的密切关系。这种小鹰来自澳大利亚岛和新几内亚岛，通常体重不超过1公斤。但是，哈斯特鹰重达10到14公斤——比现存的最大的肉食鸟类、拉丁美洲的哈尔皮埃鹰还要重30%～40%，几乎达到了可飞行鸟类的体重极限。
         看起来如此不同的两种物种居然会在基因上有密切联系，并且科学家推测它们共同的祖先生活在不到一百万年前。也就是说这种小鹰到达新西兰岛后，在那期间体重增长了10到15倍，这从生物进化的角度来看是快得难以置信的。这样快的进化速度在鸟类和哺乳动物中都是空前绝后的。
         哈斯特巨鹰是当时陆地生态系统中“最高”的掠食者，它们捕食恐鸟(一种新西兰无翼大鸟食草动物、不能飞行，每天能捕食200公斤的东西)。为了在森林中飞行，巨鹰必须缩短翅膀，即使那样也有3米长。它们从侧面攻击捕食动物，用它那老虎般大小的爪子猛地向捕食动物抓去。一旦抓住，巨鹰另一只大爪子只需在恐鸟头上或者脖子上一击就能让猎物当场毙命。
        科学家相信，这种大鸟灭绝于人类移居新西兰岛之后的2个世纪内，也就是大约700年前。森林大火破坏了它们的栖息地，人类的存在切断了它们的食物供应。也有一些证据证明这种巨鹰有可能是被猎杀灭绝的。

Haast's Eagle (Harpagornis moorei), was a massive, extinct eagle that once lived on the South Island of New Zealand. Also known as the Harpagornis Eagle, it was the largest eagle to have ever lived. It is believed that the Māori called it Pouakai; the often-cited name Hokioi (or hakawai) refers to the aerial display of the New Zealand Snipe — specifically, the extinct South Island subspecies.As the hokioi was only known by the loud noise it produced, the Māori assumed it to be a large, powerful bird and described it as a gigantic eagle, the largest flying bird known to them.
Description
Female Haast's Eagles weighed 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 lb), and males weighed 9 to 10 kg (20 to 22 lb). They had a wingspan of roughly 2.6 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft) at most, which was short for a bird of the eagle's weight (the largest Golden Eagles and Steller's Sea Eagles may have wings of almost the same width), but aided them when hunting in the dense forests of New Zealand. Haast's Eagle is sometimes portrayed as evolving towards flightlessness, but this is not so; rather, it represents a departure from its ancestors' mode of soaring flight and towards higher wing loading and manoeuverability. The strong legs and massive flight muscles would have enabled the birds to take off with a jumping start from the ground, despite their great weight. The tail was almost certainly long (up to 50 cm (20 inches), in female specimens) and very broad, further increasing manoeuverability and providing additional lift.[2] Total length was perhaps up to 1.4 m (4.7 ft) in females, with a standing height of around 90 cm (about 3 ft) tall or even slightly more. Haast's Eagle preyed on large, flightless bird species, including the moa which was up to 15 times its weight.[2] It attacked at speeds up to 80 km per hour (50 mph), often seizing its prey's pelvis with the talons of one foot and killing with a blow to the head or neck with the other. Its large beak was used to rip into the internal organs and death was induced by blood loss. In the absence of other large predators or scavengers, a Haast's Eagle could have easily monopolised a single large kill over a number of days.
          Early human settlers in New Zealand (the Māori arrived about 1,000 years ago) also preyed heavily on large flightless birds including all moa species, eventually hunting them to extinction. This caused the Haast's Eagle to become extinct around 1500 when the last of its food sources dwindled out. It may also itself have been hunted by humans: a large, fast bird of prey that specialised in hunting large bipeds may have been perceived as a threat by Māori — for a creature that could kill a moa weighing 180 kg (400 lb), an adult human may have been a viable prey alternative.
          A noted explorer, Charles Douglas, claims in his journals that he had an encounter with two raptors of immense size in Landsborough River valley (probably in the 1870s), and shot and ate them.[4] These birds might have been a last remnant of the species, but this is very unlikely because there had not been suitable prey for a population of Haast's Eagle to maintain itself for about half a millennium at that time and 19th century Māori lore was quite adamant that the pouakai was a bird not seen in living memory. Still, Douglas' observations on wildlife are generally trustworthy; a more probable explanation, given that the alleged three-metre wingspan of Douglas' birds is unlikely to have been more than a rough estimate, is that the birds were Eyles' Harriers. This was the largest known harrier (the size of a small eagle) — and a generalist predator — and although it is also assumed to have gone extinct in prehistoric times, its dietary habits alone make it a more likely candidate for late survival.
Until recent human colonisation, the only terrestrial mammals found on New Zealand were three species of bat, one of which has recently become extinct. Free from mammalian competition and predatory threat, birds occupied or dominated all major niches in the New Zealand animal ecology. Moa were grazers — functionally similar to deer or cattle elsewhere — and Haast's Eagle hunters, filling the same niche as top-niche mammalian predators such as tigers or brown bears.
          DNA analysis has shown that this raptor is most closely related to the much smaller Little Eagle as well as the Booted Eagle (both recently reclassified as belonging to the genus Aquila.[5]) and not, as previously thought, to the large Wedge-tailed Eagle[6] Thus, Harpagornis moorei may be reclassified as Aquila moorei, pending confirmation. H. moorei may have diverged from these smaller eagles as recently as 700,000 to 1.8 million years ago. Its increase in weight by 10 to 15 times over that period is the greatest and fastest evolutionary increase in weight of any known vertebrate. This was made possible in part by the presence of large prey and the absence of competition from other large predators.
Haast's Eagle was first classified by Julius von Haast, who named it Harpagornis moorei after George Henry Moore, the owner of the Glenmark Estate where bones of the bird had been found.

Scientific classification
Binomial name: Harpagornis moorei
Conservation status: Prehistoric
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Falconiformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Harpagornis
Species: H. moorei 

         能想像一只轻型飞机般大的鸟从头顶飞过吗？虽然，人们无缘看到这一奇观。但是，这样的巨鸟的确存在过。3日出版的美国<国家科学院学报>杂志刊登研究报告说，600万年前，今南美地区曾生活过一种名为“阿根廷巨鸟”的鸟类，它是人类已知最大的飞鸟。对于这种体格庞大的巨鸟何以能凌空翱翔，科学家在研究报告中给出了答案。
　　比秃鹰飞得还快研究报告是一支由美国古生物学家组成的研究小组撰写。他们在阿根廷北部潘帕斯草原以及南美安第斯山脉发现阿根廷巨鸟的遗骸化石。经研究发现，阿根廷巨鸟生活在距今约600万年前，早于人类出现在地球上。
　　阿根廷巨鸟重约68公斤，翼幅达7米，体积近似一架轻型飞机，被认为是人类已知最大的飞鸟。它头骨长度约为0.6米，喙也非常长，因而能够捕食体型庞大的猎物。
　　古生物学家说，人们不必为阿根廷巨鸟感到担心，怕它因为太大、太沉而无法飞行。他们说，阿根廷巨鸟不仅能飞，而且飞行速度远胜于现在的某些鸟类，如安第斯秃鹰。阿根廷巨鸟平均每天能飞行约322公里。在合适的条件下，飞行速度可达每小时107公里。
　　起飞技巧如滑翔机为破解阿根廷巨鸟的飞行奥秘，古生物学家利用测量轻型飞机飞行数据的电脑程序来测算阿根廷巨鸟的飞行数据。研究发现，巨鸟并非像普通鸟类依靠拍打翅膀飞行，它通常选择以山上的一处高地作为出发点，然后靠奔跑滑翔升空。相比之下，对于巨鸟而言，在平原起飞较为困难。美国得克萨斯理工大学的桑卡尔·查特吉教授说：“它不可能站着拍拍翅膀就飞起来。它得从斜坡上奔跑下来，或者借助风力获得飞行动力，这与悬挂式滑翔机的起飞技巧相似。”查特吉教授是这项针对阿根廷巨鸟的研究报告的主要作者。
　　不过，“一旦阿根廷巨鸟飞起来了，接下来就没什么问题。”查特吉说。起飞后，巨鸟由于体重过沉，无法靠自身维持长时间飞行，但是它能够利用空气中上升的暖气流来获得飞行动力。阿根廷巨鸟在暖气流内随气流盘旋上升，并不断从一个暖气流进入另一个暖气流中。以此方式，阿根廷巨鸟平均每小时可飞行约64公里。借上升气流远走高飞查特吉介绍说，阿根廷鸟能够飞翔，除了依靠自己的“聪明才智”外，还得益于它生活的地区得天独厚的自然环境。起自南大西洋的东风常年刮过潘帕斯草原，吹向安第斯东部山脉。正是这股东风为草原和山脉上方带来了上升气流。而阿根廷巨鸟正是借这些气流翱翔天际。此外，查特吉介绍说，阿根廷巨鸟并非唯一懂得利用上升气流飞行的鸟类。几百万年后的今天，一些体型较大且羽翼宽大的陆地鸟类，如鹰、秃鹰、鹳之类，仍在利用同样的原理飞行。
　　“这些鸟都是利用上升暖气流的专家。它们能借助气流飞到很高的高度，还能飞过漫长距离，到达不同的国家。”

Scientific classification
Binomial name :Argentavis magnificens
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Ciconiiformes
Family: Teratornithidae
Genus: Argentavis
Campbell & Tonni, 1980
Species: A. magnificens

Argentavis magnificens (literally "Magnificent Argentine Bird") is the largest flying bird ever discovered.Sometimes called the Giant Teratorn, is an extinct species known from (as of 2006) three sites from the late Miocene (6 million years before present) of Central and Northwestern Argentina, South America, where a good sample of fossils has been obtained.
Physical characteristics
Currently accepted estimates:
Wingspan: 5.7 to 8.3 m (19 - 28 ft)
Wing area: nearly 7 square m (75 square ft)
Wing loading: c. 11,5 kg/square m
Length: 3.5 m (11.5 ft)
Height: 1.8 to 2 m (5.9 ft - 6.5 ft)
Weight: 65-100 kg (143 lb - 220 lb)
For comparison, the living bird with the largest wingspan is the Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans, 3.63 m). Since A. magnificens is known to have been a land bird, another good point of comparison is the Andean Condor, Vultur gryphus, which is not too distantly related to Argentavis. This bird is among the largest landbirds altogether, with a wingspan of about 3 m and weighing up to 12 kg. The largest known flying creatures ever were certain pterosaurs, extinct flying reptiles related to the dinosaurs. In 1971, remains of Quetzalcoatlus were found in Texas, The largest remains, on display at the Science Museum of Minnesota, are somewhat inconclusive, and may indicate an individual with a wingspan as large as 18 m (59 ft). Such a wingspan, however, may violate fundamental structural limits imposed on biological fliers; some scientists favor a wingspan closer to 12 m (40 ft) in light of these arguments. Before Quetzalcoatlus, the largest known pterosaur was Pteranodon, with individuals with 9 m (30 ft) winspan.
         The heaviest extant flying bird is not heavier than 20 kg (several contenders, among which are the European Great Bustard Otis tarda and the African Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori). The Sarus Crane is the tallest flying bird alive, standing nearly as high as Argentavis due to its long legs.Flightlessness is not a simple question of weight, except in extreme cases. Site and structure of the wing must also be taken into account. As a rule-of-thumb, a wing loading of 25 kg/square m is considered the de facto limit for avian flight (Meunier, 1951).
         The humerus (upper arm bone) of Argentavis is somewhat damaged. It allows a fairly accurate estimate of its length in life, which was a bit shorter than an entire human arm (Campbell & Tonni, 1983). The species apparently had stout, strong legs and large feet which enabled it to walk with ease. The bill was large, rather slender, had a hooked tip and a wide gape.
Ecology
As with all extinct species not much can be known about the Giant Teratorn's behaviour. From the size and structure of its wings it is inferred that A. magnificens flew mainly by soaring, using flapping flight only during short periods. It is probable that it used thermal currents and the prevailing westerly winds that swept across the region (there were no sizable mountains in southern South America at the time). It has been estimated that the minimal velocity for the wing of A. magnificens is about 11 m/s or 40 km/h (Vizcaíno et al., 2000). Especially for takeoff, they would have depended on the wind, as although their legs were strong enough to provide them with a running or jumping start, the wings were simply too long to flap effectively until the bird was some meters off the ground (Campbell & Tonni, 1983).
          This species seems not as well-suited for predation aerodynamically as its relatives. It probably preferred to scavenge for carrion, and it is likely that it habitually chased marsupial carnivores such as Thylacosmilidae from their kills. Unlike extant condors and vultures, the other species of teratorns also generally had long, eagle-like beaks and they are believed to have been active predators, being less ponderous than Argentavis. When hunting actively, A. magnificens would probably have swooped from high above onto their prey, which they usually would have been able to grab, kill, and swallow without landing. Skull structure makes Campbell and Tonni (1983) think that it ate most of its prey whole rather than tearing off pieces of flesh.
          Argentavis' territories measured probably more than 500 square km, which the birds screened for food, possibly utilizing a generally north-south direction to avoid being slowed by adverse winds. Comparison with extant birds suggests it laid one or two eggs with a mass of somewhat over 1 kg - somewhat smaller than an ostrich egg - every two years. Climate considerations make it likely that the birds incubated over the winter months, mates exchanging duties of incubating and procuring food every few days, and that the young were independent after some 16 months, but not fully mature until aged about a dozen years. Mortality must have been very low, with an estimated 2% of birds dying per year being close to the maximum possible while maintaining a viable population, but Argentavis suffered hardly any predation, thus mortality was mainly from old age, accidents and diseases (Palmqvist & Vizcaíno, 2003). As a comparison, the annual mortality rate for humans ranged between about 0.22 and 3% in 2007, according to the CIA estimate.

生物─┬─植物界─┬─种子植物:显花植物─┬─裸子植物门─┬──────────┐                               ─┐                                          ┐
            │                    │                                          └─被子植物门─┼─→维管植物     │                                  │高等植物                         │
            │                    └─孢子植物:隐花植物─┬─蕨类植物门─┴──────────┼─→颈卵器植物     │有胚植物                         │
            │                                                                 ├─苔藓植物门────────────┘                               ─┘                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─地衣植物门                                                                      ─┐                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─真菌植物门─┐                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─卵菌植物门─┤                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─粘菌植物门─┼─菌类植物                                               │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─细菌植物门─┘                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─褐藻植物门─┐                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─红藻植物门─┤                                                                   │低等植物                         │
            │                                                                 ├─轮藻植物门─┤                                                                   │无胚植物                         │
            │                                                                 ├─绿藻植物门─┤                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─硅藻植物门─┼─藻类植物                                               │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─黄藻植物门─┤                                                                   │                                          ├─真核生物
            │                                                                 ├─金藻植物门─┤                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─甲藻植物门─┤                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 ├─裸藻植物门─┤                                                                   │                                          │
            │                                                                 └─蓝藻植物门─┘                                                                ─┘                                          │
            ├─动物界─┬─无脊椎动物─┬─原生动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─海绵动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─腔肠动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─扁形动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─线形动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─环节动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─软体动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─节肢动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            ├─棘皮动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    │                            └─半索动物门                                                                                                                                    │
            │                    └──  脊椎动物───脊索动物门─┬─尾索动物亚门                                                                                                 │
            │                                                                                  ├─头索动物亚门                                                                                                 │
            │                                                                                  ├─脊索动物亚门                                                                                                 │
            │                                                                                  └─脊椎动物亚门                                                                                                 ┘
            └─微生物界─┬─原生生物:病毒生物
              　　　　        ├─原核生物:细菌生物
                                       └─真核生物:真菌生物

拉丁文名    stegodon  
物种食物    植物  
生存年代    更新世  
生存地点    indonesia  
地质层位    solo river,jawah    
物种种类    长鼻目  
         剑齿象长鼻目真象科剑齿象亚科已绝灭的一属。这一类象的头骨比真象略长，腿也长，上颌的象牙既长且大，向上弯曲 ；下颌短，没有象牙；颊齿齿冠较低，断面呈屋脊形的齿脊数目逐渐增加；晚期进步的剑齿象，第三臼齿齿脊数多达10条以上。最早的剑齿象出现于中新世晚期，最晚可以生存到晚更新世。它的地理分布仅限于亚洲和非洲。中国的剑齿象化石非常多，种的数目也比较多。北方最常见的种是师氏剑齿象（以前小学课本里有篇介绍黄河象的课文，所谓“黄河象”或“黄河剑齿象”的学名就是师氏剑齿象），南方常见的是东方剑齿象。师氏剑齿象是一种特大型的剑齿象，在甘肃发现过它的完整骨架，身躯远远大于现生的两种象。东方剑齿象相对比较小，它是大熊猫- 剑齿象动物群的重要成员，在华南洞穴中很容易见到它的化石。

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Elephantidae
Subfamily: Stegodontinae
Genus: Stegodon 
Stegodon is a genus of the extinct subfamily Stegodontinae of the order Proboscidea. Stegodons lived in large parts of Asia during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. Some Stegodon species were among the largest of all Proboscidea, with adults being 13 feet high at the shoulder, 26 feet long, not including 10 feet long nearly straight tusks. In some individuals the tusks were so close together that the trunk probably did not lie between them but instead draped over. A dwarf population survived until 12,000 years ago on the Island of Flores. Its name is derived from the Greek words stegein ('to cover') and odοn ('tooth') because of the distinctive ridges on the animal's molars.
 Relationship
            In the past, stegodonts were believed to be the ancestors of the true elephants and mammoths, but it is currently believed that they have no modern descendants. Stegodon is derived from the genus Stegolophodon, an extinct genus known from the Miocene of Asia. Stegodon is considered to be a sister group of the mammoth, as well as the extant elephants. Some taxonomists consider the stegodonts as a subfamily of the Elephantidae. Both Stegolophodon and primitive elephants were derived from the Gomphotheriidae. The most important difference between stegodon and the Elephantidae can be observed in the molars. Molars of stegodonts consist of a series of low, roof-shaped ridges, whereas in elephants each ridge has become a high-crowned plate. Furthermore, the skeletons of stegodonts are more robust and compact than those of elephants.
            In the Bardia National Park in Nepal, there is a population of Indian Elephants which, due to inbreeding are very similar to Stegodon and may retain many Stegodon features. Some dismiss these primitive features as recent mutations rather than atavisms.

Mastodons(meaning "nipple-teeth") are members of the extinct genus Mammut of the order Proboscidea and form the family Mammutidae; they resembled, but were distinct from, the woolly mammoth which belongs to the family Elephantidae. Mastodons were browsers and mammoths were grazers.
Habitat
Mastodons are thought to have first appeared almost four million years ago and became extinct about 10,000 years ago, at the same time as most other Pleistocene megafauna. Though their habitat spanned a large territory, mastodons were most common in the Ice age spruce forests of the eastern United States, as well as in warmer lowland environments.Their remains have been found as far as 300 kilometers offshore in the northeastern United States, in areas that were dry land during the low sea level stand of the last ice age.There have been, however, findings of mastodon fossils in South America and also on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state. Mastodon fossils have been found in Stewiack, Nova Scotia, Canada, and also were discovered north of Fort Wayne, Indiana.
         Mastodons were native to both Eurasia and North America, but died out in Eurasia approximately three million years ago. They survived in North America until approximately 10,000 years ago.
Description
While mastodons were furry like woolly mammoths, and similar in height at roughly three meters at the shoulder, the resemblance was superficial. They differed from mammoths primarily in the blunt, conical shape of their teeth, which were more suited to chewing leaves than the high-crowned teeth mammoths used for grazing; the name mastodon (or mastodont) means mastoid teeth (Greek μαστός and οδούς "nipple tooth"), and is also an obsolete name for their genus. Their skulls were larger and flatter than those of mammoths, while their skeleton was stockier and more robust.Mastodons also seem to have lacked the undercoat characteristic of mammoths.
         The tusks of the mastodon sometimes exceeded five meters in length, and were nearly horizontal, in contrast with the more curved mammoth tusks.Young males had vestigial lower tusks that were lost in adulthood.However it has been proven that female mastodons had lower pairs of tusks. The tusks were probably used to break branches and twigs although some evidence suggests males may have used them in mating challenges; one tusk is often shorter than the other, suggesting that, like humans, mastodons may have had laterality.Examination of fossilized tusks revealed a series of regularly spaced shallow pits on the underside of the tusks. Microscopic examination showed damage to the dentin under the pits. It is theorized that the damage was caused when the males were fighting over mating rights. The curved shape of the tusks would have forced them downward with each blow, causing damage to the newly forming ivory at the base of the tusk. The regularity of the damage in the growth patterns of the tusks indicates that this was an annual occurrence, probably occurring during the spring and early summer.
Extinction
The meat of mastodons was a food source for early humans. Paleontologists are still trying to determine what role, if any, the early human settlers of North America played in the extinction of the mastodon. Recent studies by scientists in Ohio and New York concluded that tuberculosis may have been partly responsible for the extinction of the Mastodon 10,000 years ago.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Mammutidae
Genus: Mammut

拉丁文名    deinotherium  
物种体长    高4米  
物种食物    植物  
生存年代    中新世－更新世  
生存地点    欧洲、亚洲、非洲  
物种种类    长鼻目·恐象科

Deinotherium(terrible beast) was a gigantic prehistoric relative of modern-day elephants that appeared in the Middle Miocene and continued until the Early Pleistocene. During that time it changed very little. In life it probably resembled modern elephants, except that its trunk was shorter, and it had downward curving tusks attached to the lower jaw.
          Deinotherium is the third largest land mammal known to have existed; only Indricotherium and Paraceratherium were larger. Males were generally between 3 and 4.5 meters (10 and 15 feet) tall at the shoulders although large specimens may have been up to 5m (16ft). Their weight is estimated to have been between 5 and 10 tonnes, with the largest males weighing in excess of 12 tonnes. Deinotherium's range covered parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Adrienne Mayor, in The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology In Greek and Roman Times, has suggested that Deinothere fossils found in Greece helped generate myths of archaic giant beings. A tooth of a deinothere found on the island of Crete, in shallow marine sediments of the Miocene (see link) raises questions: was Crete connected to the mainland during that time, or did Deinotheres share the often underrated swimming abilities of modern elephants?
        恐象是象形长鼻目中已经绝种的一类，上颚没有獠牙，下颚有一对很大向下弯的獠牙。白齿的特征是有2－3道简单的横向脊骨（齿脊），这是用来切割杆物的，而与这相对应的咬碎动作则是其它大多数更原始的长鼻目所共有的。恐象可能生活于森林之中。磨损的形式说明了下弯的獠牙用来掘根或剥去树皮之用。
       在长鼻类进化历史的早期，还分化出一类形态很特殊的旁支，这就是恐象。和其他长鼻类一样，恐象也有一段史料空白期。中新世它一开始出现便已相当特化，而且自此以后直至更新世期间它完全消失，形态上除体躯增高增大外，几乎没有变化。这类象是长腿的长鼻类，站立时身高3米以上。它的头骨不似现代象那样高耸，上颌无大象牙，但有长鼻。下颌有一对大象牙，从颌前端向下弯曲，然后向后弯向身躯，很像是一对固定在下巴上的巨钩。每枚颊齿由两条横脊组成，脊顶锐利，略呈弧形。

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Suborder: Deinotheroidea
Family: Deinotheriidae
Subfamily: Deinotheriinae
Genus: Deinotherium

         猛犸象（mammuthus）长鼻目真象科（elephan-tidae）的已绝灭的一属。此属动物，英文全都叫做mam-moth，猛犸乃沿用日本人的译名。广义的猛犸一度曾包括平额象（mammuthus planifrons）、南方象（mammu-thus meridionalis）等许许多多早期原始的真象，其中有一些类型与现生的印度象和非洲象系统关系非常近。狭义的猛犸象（mammuthus primigenius）又名毛象，是一种适应于寒冷气候的动物，在更新世，它广泛分布于包括中国东北部在内的北半球寒带地区。这种动物身躯高大，体披长毛，一对长而粗壮的象牙强烈向上向后弯曲并旋卷。它的头骨短，顶脊非常高，上下额和齿槽深。臼齿齿板排列紧密，数目很多，第三臼齿最多可以有30片齿板。
         猛犸象曾是石器时代人类的重要狩猎对象，在欧洲的许多洞穴遗址的洞壁上，常常可以看到早期人类绘制的它的图像，这种动物一直活到几千年以前，在阿拉斯加和西伯利亚的冻土和冰层里，曾不止一次发现这种动物冷冻的尸体，包括带有皮肉的完整个体。猛犸象是一种生活在寒代的大型哺乳动物，与现在的象非常相似，所不同的是它的象牙既长又向上弯曲，头颅很高。从侧面看，它的背部是身体的最高点，从背部开始往后很陡地降下来，脖颈处有一个明显的凹陷，表皮长满了长毛，其形象如同一个驼背的老人。
        猛犸象生活在北半球的第四纪大冰川时期，距今300万年～1万年前，身高一般5米，体重10吨左右，以草和灌木叶子为生。由于身披长毛，可抗御严寒，一直生活在高寒地带的草原和丘陵上。当时的人类与其同期进化，开始还能和平相处，但进化到了新人阶段，还会使用火攻，集体协同作战，捕杀成群的动物和大型的动物，猛犸象就是他们猎取的主要对象。在法国一处昔日沼泽的化石产地，人们挖掘出了猛犸象的化石。从化石的排列上可以看出：猛犸象被肢解了，四条腿骨前后相连排成一线，头骨被砸开，肋骨有缺失。根据这个现场，专家们勾画了一幅当时画面：原始人齐心协力将一头猛犸象逼进了沼泽将它陷住，大家在沼泽边用石块和长矛把象杀死。先上去几个人把象腿砍下来，搭到沼泽边，让其他人踩着象腿走到象身上，割下大块带肋骨的象肉，用长矛插着运回驻地，有人用工具砸开象头，吞食尚还温热的象脑（用今天的眼光看，他是在大吃补品），砍下象鼻，挖出内脏。运走了这头象可食的部分，其余的便丢弃在沼泽里。在漫长的岁月中，沼泽水枯泥干，成为干燥的土地，在偶然的机会中被发现有化石，再现了当年生物的场面。猛犸象化石出土最多的地方是在北极圈附近。阿拉斯加的爱斯基摩人用象牙化石做屋门，北冰洋沿岸俄罗斯领海中有一个小岛，岛上的猛犸象化石遍地都是。这些化石是冰块流动时从岸边泥土中带出的，堆积到了这个小岛上。由于猛犸象绝灭不过一万年的时间，而在自然界中化石的形成需要2.5万年，所以猛犸象的化石都是半石化的，像中药里的“龙骨”一样，也是可以用来做药的。更有甚者，前苏联古生物学家在西伯利亚永久冻土层中竟然发现了一头基本完整的猛犸象！它的皮、毛和肉俱全。发现它时，它的嘴里还沾有青草，可能是吃草时不小心掉进了冰缝中，经过1万年自然“冰箱”的保存，终于和现代人类见面了。发现这头象不久，在前苏联开了次有关会议，与会代表不但见到了它出土的照片，而且还亲口品尝了它身上的肉。据说肉不好吃，味道也不香。也许是烹饪技术不佳，如果按照中国川菜做法，可能就会变成美味佳肴了。
         猛犸象生活到距今1万年的时候突然全部绝灭了，是什么原因造成的呢？专家们做过仔细的研究，找出了许多的原因，但归纳起来还是由外因和内因共同造成的。外因：气候变暖，猛犸象被迫向北方迁移，活动区域缩小了，草场植物减少了，使猛犸象得不到足够的食物，面临着饥饿的威胁；内因：生长速度缓慢。以现代象为例，从怀孕到产仔需要22个月，猛犸象生活在严寒地带，推测其怀孕期会更长。在人类和猛兽的追杀下，幼象的成活率极低，且被捕杀的数量离现代越近越多，一旦它们的生殖与死亡之间的平衡遭到破坏，其数量就会不可避免的迅速减少直至绝灭。这是大自然的淘汰规律，并非对猛犸象不公平。新生代的第三纪末期时也发生过类似的情况，当时大量的原始哺乳动物绝灭了，由现代动物的祖先取代了它们，猛犸象的祖先那时代替了它们，现在该轮到它们让出地盘了。猛犸象以自己整个种群的灭亡标志了第四纪冰川时代的结束。

Scientific classification
界： 动物界 Animalia
門： 脊索动物门 Chordata
纲： 哺乳纲 Mammalia
目： 长鼻目 Proboscidea
科： 象科 Elephantidae
属： 猛犸象属 Mammuthus

始祖象
身长：1.4米。身高：70厘米。分类：象类（具体不明）。活动范围：北非塞内加尔、苏丹、埃及等地。灭绝时间：始新世末。
备注：始祖象的身躯不大，符合生物演化的规律：小—大。腿比较短，头部不是很大，眼睛靠近面部的前段，上下门齿长的较长，但是并不突出嘴外。上唇比较厚实，但并没有拉长形成长鼻，根据化石出土的地点，考虑当时的环境，绝大多数的人认为始祖象是两栖性的动物，生活习性与河马比较接近。
古乳齿象
身长：3米。身高：1.8米。分类：象类，隶乳齿象类。活动范围：北非全境。灭绝时间：渐新世初期。
备注：一般象类科学家认为象的真正始祖应该是乳齿象，乳齿象的的命名根据是：齿冠较低，齿尖是乳头状的。
他们根据资料相信象起源于非洲，稍后发展到亚洲、欧洲，最后到达北美洲。古乳齿象生活在北非，生活时间是大约5千万年前。
始乳齿象
身长：3.5米。身高：2米。分类：象类，属于乳齿象类。活动范围；北非广大地区。灭绝时间：渐新世中期。
备注：古乳齿象和始乳齿象的分布地区及生活时间一致。
轭齿象
身长：3.5米。身高：1.9米。分类：象类，属于乳齿象。活动范围：中国华南地区，在华北偶然有发现。
灭绝时间：渐新世末。
备注：这一类象的牙齿比较怪，虽然是乳齿象类的一分子，但它的下门齿不突出嘴外，或仅仅显露出一点齿尖。
贾氏剑齿象
身长：6米。身高：3.2米。分类：象类。活动范围：中国华北、华东和华南。灭绝时间：更新世中期。
备注：许多的地方只发现了这种象的残骨，没有发现保存太多的化石。
纳玛古菱齿象
身长：6.5米。身高：3.8米。分类：象类，属于真象类中的剑齿象。活动范围：中国广大地区。灭绝时间：更新世末。
备注：这种象的生活范围很广，最北到达天津，南至台湾海沟。有许多的亚种。
四棱齿象
身长：6.5米。身高：3.5米。分类：象类，真象？？乳齿象？？活动范围：中国广大地区。
灭绝时间：更新世中期。
备注：它的象牙很长，但不是向上向前长，是比较平直的向前长。
乳齿象
身长：3.8米。身高：2.2米。分类：象类，隶属于乳齿象类。活动范围：非洲、亚洲、欧洲和北美洲。灭绝时间：中新世末，个别地区坚持到更新世末。
备注：乳齿象的身体较长，四肢相对较短，头骨低。上下颌各有一对加大加长的门齿。有的乳齿象只有比较发达的上门齿，有的却正相反。
师氏剑齿象
身长：8米。身高：4米。分类：象类，真象类中的剑齿象类。活动范围：甘肃，山西及中国广大地区。灭绝时间：更新世末。
备注：这种象还有一个人人都知道的名字：黄河剑齿象。其实两者是同属同种，但后者的知名度大大超过前者，严格的说根据生物命名法，黄河剑齿象这一名称应该废掉，但国内、国外许多人只知道黄河剑齿象，却不知道师氏剑齿象，这样就严重的制约了我国的生物学、生物命名学的发展，1973年在甘肃发现的师氏剑齿象，现在陈列在北京自然博物馆，全国最早发现的师氏剑齿象的完整骨骼化石，现陈列在天津自然博物馆。
诸氏剑齿象
身长：6.4米。身高：3.8米。分类：象类，剑齿象类。活动范围：中国北方广大地区。灭绝时间：更新世末。
备注：它们的化石石化程度普遍不高，所以有可能是在全新世初灭绝的。
大草原猛犸象
身长：6.2米。身高：4米。分类：象类，真象中的猛犸象类。活动范围：北极，俄罗斯，中国，美国，加拿大等广大地区。灭绝时间：全新世初（12000年前）
备注：最早发现猛犸实体的是俄罗斯，在1900年，标本现在陈列在圣彼得堡科学动物博物馆中（发现的是猛犸中的真猛犸象，不是大草原猛犸象，不过俄罗斯的科学家认为两者是同种，所以现在争论很大）。
猛犸出现在40多万年前的地球上，是象家族中的一个分支，它们离开温暖的故乡，定居在北极地区。
铲齿象
身长：4米。身高：2.3米。分类：象类，属于乳齿象类。活动范围：中国华北、西北广大地区及欧洲、亚洲其他国家和北美洲。灭绝时间：上新世末，华北地区有的生存到更新世末。
备注：这一类的象的下颌骨比较发达、伸长，两个下门齿愈合到一起，呈现铲子的样子，所以叫铲齿象，也叫板齿象，我国最有名的铲齿象是在宁夏同心发现的。
谷氏铲齿象
身长：4.2米。身高：2.5.米。分类：象类，隶属于乳齿象类。活动范围：中国华北，西北地区。灭绝时间：更新世初。
备注：无。
真猛犸
身长：5.8米。身高：4米。分类：象类，猛犸象类。活动范围：欧洲，亚洲北部，北美洲。
灭绝时间：全新世初。
备注：现在怀疑“真猛犸象”和“大草原猛犸象”同种。
原猛犸象
身长：5.4米。身高：3.7米。分类：象类，属于猛犸象类。活动范围：欧洲东部，亚洲北部、东部。北美洲西北部。灭绝时间：更新世末。
备注：根据一些标本的研究，肯定了猛犸的确有几个不同的品种，其中最原始的是原猛犸象。
恐象
身长：6米。身高：4米。分类：象类，恐象类。活动范围：欧洲，亚洲，北美洲的大部分地区。灭绝时间：更新世初期，在北美洲的个别地区有的种类坚持到更新世末。
备注：恐象是在象早期演化过程中分化出来的一个旁支，真象的象牙是上颌第二对门齿加长形成的，恐象类也拥有一对加长的象牙，但却是长在下颌上。方向不是向前、向上，而是向下、向后，好象农民用的耙子。
明镇兽（伟锥明镇兽）
身长：1.5米？？身高：75厘米？？分类：象类？？活动范围：广东雄县大塘及周遍地区。
灭绝时间：渐新世初。
备注：明镇兽是我国科学家于1979年在广东发现的，根据我国的研究，肯定了它就是世界上真正最早的象类，并以我国著名的古生物科学家周明镇命名的。明镇兽的身体大小接近现在的羊，生活在距今5500万年前，它的发现证实象类动物起源于亚洲（中国），而非先前认为的非洲北部。（但是，国外许多科学家拒绝承认它的生物位置，认为它比较接近索齿动物类的祖先）
直齿象
身长：5米。身高：3米。分类：象类。活动范围：中国的广大地区。灭绝时间：更新世初。
备注：无。
巨恐象
身长：7.2米。身高：4.5米。活动范围：欧洲？？亚洲？？北美洲。灭绝时间：更新世初。
备注：它是世界目前发现最大的恐象类物种。
互棱齿象
身长：4.5米。身高：2.5米。分类：象类。活动范围：中国广大地区。灭绝时间：更新世初。
备注：无。
侏儒猛犸象
身长：3.4米。身高：1.8米。分类：象类，猛犸象类。活动范围：北极的弗兰格尔岛。灭绝时间：４千—７千年前。
备注：它是目前世界上发现的最小的成年猛犸化石，它只有普通猛犸象的１／４大小。
包氏乳齿象
身长：３.５米。身高：２.２米。分类：象类，属于乳齿象。活动范围：山西全境及周遍地区。灭绝时间：中新世中期。
备注：无。
哥伦比亚猛犸象
身长：５.５米。身高：４米。分类：象类，猛犸类。活动范围：北美洲。
灭绝时间：全新世初。
备注：无。
贾克夫猛犸象
身长；６米。身高：４米。分类：象类，属于猛犸象类。活动范围：北美洲大部分地区。
灭绝时间：全新世初。
备注：无。

           始祖象Moeritherium(莫湖兽)————————→ ┌亚洲象Elephas maximus
                            │                                                                         │     　 └婆罗洲象 
                            │                                                                         └斜纹齿象
                            ├───────恐象Dinotherium                               └非洲象loxodonta africanna
                            │                               └ 巨恐象                                                 ├森林种
                            ↓进化                                                                                         └草原种     
             乳齿象Mastodon
                       ├乳齿象Mastodon
                       │      ├始乳齿象Phiomia(渐新象,湖象)
                       │      ├剑乳齿象Stegomastodon
                       │      ├包氏乳齿象
                       │      ├中国乳齿象Sinomastodon 
                       │      ├美洲乳齿象Mammut
                       │      └古乳齿象Palaeomastodon            
                       ├铲齿象Platybelodon——→？猛犸象
                       │          ├铲齿象Platybelodon
                       │          │          └谷氏铲齿象
                       │          └锯齿象Serridentinus   
                       ├喙嘴象Rhychotherium
                       ├厚齿象Synconolophus
                       ├嵌齿象Gomphotherium
                       ├轭齿象Zygolophodon 
                       ├棱齿象
                       │        ├五棱齿象Pentalophodon
                       │        ├四棱齿象Tetralophodon
                       │        └互棱齿象Anancus
                       └脊棱象Stegolophodon
                             │ 　　 └淮河脊棱象
                             ↓进化
                          真象───┐
                             │           ├猛犸象Mammuthus
                             │           │          ├ 大草原猛犸象  
                             │           │          ├真猛犸象
                剑棱象│           │          ├原猛犸象
                             │           │          ├侏儒猛犸象
                             │           │          ├哥伦比亚猛犸象
                             │           │          ├贾克夫猛犸象
                             │           │          └长毛猛犸象
                             └──→ ├脊齿象
                                            │      ├脊齿象——————————→？非洲象
                                            │      │       ├四脊齿象 
                                            │      │       └新月脊齿象Selenolophodon     
                                            │      └剑齿象Stegodon
                                            │           ┌┘      ├师氏剑齿象:黄河剑齿象
                                            │           │         ├ 诸氏剑齿象
                                            │           │         ├东方剑齿象Stegodon orientalis
                                            │           │         │          └前东方剑齿象
                                            │           │         ├夔门剑齿象
                                            │           │         ├威宁剑齿象
                                            │           │         ├桑氏剑齿象
                                            │           │         ├诸氏剑齿象
                                            │   进化↓         └贾氏剑齿象
                                            ├──古菱齿象
                                            │            ├诺氏古菱齿象
                                            │            └平凉古菱齿象——————→亚洲象  
                                            ├古棱齿象Palaeoloxodon——→?非洲象
                                            │            └古棱齿象亚种——→直齿象——→？亚洲象    
                                            └原齿象Archidiskodon

         大约在距今3000万年前的渐新世晚期，始祖象沿着三个方向发展，一支是恐象，一支是短颌乳齿象，第三支经过长颌乳齿象、剑齿象等阶段，最后进化到现代象。
　　恐象没有巨大的象牙，但下颌骨却有一对向下弯的大牙，颊齿的齿冠由两个尖的脊组成。它是从象的原始类型中分化出来的一个特殊旁枝，曾经生活在欧亚大陆和非洲，从中新世早期出现，一直到更新世绝灭。
　　乳齿象是始祖象的直接后裔，最早出现的是渐新世初期分布于非洲的古乳齿象。它的身体比始祖象大一倍，上门齿进一步发育，成为持续生长的、向下弯曲的长牙。釉质层仅限于牙齿的外侧。臼齿有三个横脊，所有的臼齿都同时使用，而不是一个接替一个生长和使用。
　　乳齿象类包括长颌乳齿象和短颌乳齿象。以嵌齿象和锯齿象为代表的长颌乳齿象的颌骨，特别是下颌骨都比较长，颊齿上的齿尖都成为钝的乳齿状。以轭齿象为代表的短颌乳齿象的颌骨短，颊齿上的齿尖并不形成明显的乳突状，而是许多小尖连结在一起成为“脊形齿”。
　　脊棱象是介于长颌乳齿象与原始象类之间的长鼻类，由乳齿象进一步发展而来，臼齿上乳齿的数目增多，并和同一横排上的乳突联接起来，发展形成一条条横脊。以后又在上新世和更新世出现了剑齿象，它的身躯庞大，四肢很长，头骨高大，上颌的牙长而弯曲，下颌短而无牙，臼齿大大地伸长，每一个臼齿的齿冠上有很多低的横脊。我国的剑齿象在上新世初期已经出现，到更新世中期仍然广泛分布。迄今为止已经发现8种，包括著名的山西榆社早上新世的桑氏剑齿象，广西柳城早更新世的前东方剑齿象，长江以南各省中更新世的东方剑齿象，以及甘肃合水县发现的更新世早期的黄河古象等。

始祖象：即莫湖兽(Moeritherium)晚始新世出现的始祖象是长鼻目的祖先，身体笨拙，大小像猪，趾端有扁平的蹄。既没有长鼻子，也没有长长的象牙，只是上唇稍大些，上下颌的第2对门齿也稍大些,根据化石记录，最早的、明显具有长鼻类特点的哺乳动物是发现于非洲北部的莫湖兽。这种动物大小与野猪相近，生活习性类似河马。它的头骨已开始向前引长，眼睛也前移；牙齿仍保持着原始有蹄类的完整齿列式:3枚门齿、1枚犬齿（仅上颌）、4枚前臼齿、3枚臼齿,但上下颌的第二对门齿变得比其他门齿大得多，显示出大象牙的萌芽状态；下犬齿已消失；前臼齿和臼齿的各齿尖已开始组合为横脊，尽管这时每个牙齿的横脊只有两条。
恐象：作为长鼻目进化的旁支，上颌没有长出长长的象牙，而是在下颌骨长出一对从下颌前端向下弯曲的长牙。它们在旧大陆从中新世一直生存到更新世
古乳齿象：作为进化出现代象类的早期类型，出现在早渐新世。身体比始祖象大了一倍，已经有了一条长长的鼻子；上下颌的前部比始祖象更突出，上颌前端第二门齿向前、向下伸出形成大象牙，下颌前端也有两个水平伸出的大象牙。有一类奇特的乳齿象，下牙变得很宽，像一把巨大的铲子，可以从浅水的湖底或沼泽中挖掘植物为食，因此被称为铲齿象
剑齿象：真象类演化的早期代表，它们在上新世晚期和更新世时生活在非洲东部和亚洲的东部及南部。象牙长达3米，长直而粗壮。四肢长而粗壮。在中国甘肃发现的黄河剑齿象，俗称“黄河象”或“黄河古象”，它就属于剑齿象的类型。
猛犸象：真象中另一类神奇的种类。距今1.2-4万年的更新世晚期，地球北半部生活着的身披长毛、体型高大的动物。它们适应寒冷气候生活，背部的毛最长可达50厘米，长毛下面还有一层绒毛，皮下脂肪厚达9厘米。猛犸象的头部还有高耸的大“驼峰”，可以储存大量的脂肪，这是对寒冷地区的适应。主要分布在北半球。据推测分析，猛犸象时由于人类的捕杀猎取以及末次冰期的结束，使得种群因生存环境的恶化最后在距今1万年前从地球上消失的
现生象：(亚洲象和非洲象) 现在，在地球上只剩亚洲象和非洲象还生存着，它们生活在热带、亚热带的丛林中，但是，人类对环境的破坏以及对野生动物资源贪婪的掠夺，使亚洲象和非洲象正在遭受着灭顶之灾，但愿我们人类能够从以往的教训中惊醒，保护好仅有的人类伙伴吧！

Scientific classification
界： 动物界 Animalia
門： 脊索动物门 Chordata
綱： 哺乳纲 Mammalia
目： 长鼻目 Proboscidea
科： 象科 Elephantidae

全新世（Holocene）：非洲象（Loxodonta）, 亚洲象（Elephas）, 美洲乳齿象（Mammut）,猛犸（Mammuthus）, 居维叶象（Cuvieronius）
更新世（Pleistocene）：猛犸（Mammuthus）, 古棱齿象（Palaeoloxodon）, 原齿象（Archidiskodon）, 剑齿象（Stegodon）, 嵌齿象（Gomphoterium）, 美洲乳齿象（Mammut）, Notiomastodon, 居维叶象（Cuvieronius）, 剑乳齿象（Stegomastodon）
上新世（Pliocene）：恐象（Deinotherium）, 四棱齿象（Tetralophodon）, 五棱齿象（Pentalophodon）, 剑齿象（Stegodon）, 棱脊象（Stegolophodon）, 嵌齿象（Gomphoterium）, Primelephas 中新世（Miocene）：恐象（Deinotherium）, 嵌齿象（Gomphoterium）, 轭齿象（Zygolophodon），铲齿象(Platybelodon)
渐新世（Oligocene）：古乳齿象（Palaeomastodon）, 始乳齿象（Phiomia）
始新世（Eocene）：始祖象（Moeritherium）, 钝兽（Barytherium）

中文名称( chinese)→ 胜王龙
拉丁文学名( name)→ rajasaurus
含义( meaning)→  王者之意 , raja yoga 即称之为胜王瑜珈
目( order )→ saurischia 蜥臀目
亚目( suborder)→ theropoda 兽脚亚目
类( infraorder)→ ceratosauria 角鼻龙类
neoceratosauria 新角鼻龙类
abelisauria 阿贝力龙类
科( family )→ abelisauridae 阿贝力龙科
亚科( subfamily )→ carnotaurinae 食肉牛龙亚科
属( genus)→ rajasaurus 胜王龙
模式种( type species)→ r.narmadensis 纳巴达胜王龙
时代( period)→ 白垩纪晚期
分布( found in)→ 马达加斯加岛 / 埃及 / 印度 
食性( diet)→ 肉食
典型体长( length)→ majungatholus atopus:7-9-米
发现者( discoverer)→ bonaparte
majungatholus atopus sues 和 taquet
简介(brief introduction)
        “它生活在6500万年前的白垩纪，头上长角，身长8至10米，身体沉重而健壮，前肢短小，用后肢行走”。它被命名为“纳巴达胜王龙”，发现这种恐龙骨骼化石的美国和印度古生物学家经过近两年的研究和分析，近日兴奋地宣布，纳巴达胜王龙是人类已知恐龙家族的“新成员”。
         1983年，印度古生物学家在纳尔默达河地区发现了一些恐龙的骨骼化石。由于研究条件所限，这些珍贵的化石一直被堆放在办公室里，无人问津。2001年，美国古生物学家开始对这些杂乱、零散的骨骼化石进行整理和研究。
在对恐龙头骨进行复员后，研究人员判定这是一只兽脚亚目食肉恐龙。这种恐龙前肢短小，而作为主要行走工具的后肢则粗壮有力，它们大多生活在恐龙灭绝前的白垩纪，靠捕食大型食草恐龙为生，此后发现的纳巴达胜王龙粪便化石也进一步证实了这一点。然而，接下来的发现让研究人员们兴奋不已。
        尽管纳巴达胜王龙与大多数食肉恐龙一样，头上长有一个角，但它的角却显得格外矮小和浑圆。古生物学家们意识到，他们很可能发现了一种“新的”恐龙，事实上越来越多解剖学上的细节证实了科学家们的猜想。经过长时间的修复和取证工作，证明纳巴达胜王龙头骨模型不同于以往发现的任何一种恐龙。
       “纳巴达胜王龙的发现简直不可思议，它生活在恐龙几近灭绝的时期，这不仅为恐龙如何灭绝的研究提供了重要线索，而且为大陆漂移学说的研究带来了一缕曙光。”古生物学家说，对纳巴达胜王龙化石发现地沉积物的研究表明，那里发生过5亿年来地球上最大规模之一的火山活动，研究人员还认为，纳巴达胜王龙与非洲岛国马达加斯加、澳大利亚和南美洲发现的某些恐龙种类之间有着千丝万缕的联系。科学家希望这一发现能够在解释各大洲如何分离，特别是印度大陆如何从非洲板块分离并“撞入”亚洲板块方面帮上忙。

中文名称( chinese)→ 分支龙
拉丁文学名( name)→ alioramus
含义( meaning)→ 进化的 分支的
目( order )→ saurischia 蜥臀目
亚目( suborder)→ theropoda 兽脚亚目
类( infraorder)→   neotheropoda 新兽脚类,tetanurae 坚尾龙类,avetheropoda 鸟兽脚类,coelurosauria 虚骨龙类,maniraptorifromes 手盗龙形类,tyrannosauroidea 暴龙超科
科( family)→ tyrannosauridae 暴龙科
亚科( subfamily)→   tyrannosaurinae 暴龙亚科
属( genus)→ alioramus 分支龙
模式种( type species)→ a. remotus 偏僻分支龙
时代( period)→ 白垩纪晚期
分布( found in)→ 蒙古
食性( diet)→ 肉食
典型状态( length up to)→ 长5-6米
推测体重( mass)→ 0.7-1吨
发现者( discoverer)→ kurzanov, 1976
命名者( first described  )→  kurzanov, 1976

中文名称→霸王龙
拉丁文学名→Tyrannosaurus
含义→残暴的蜥蜴
目(order)→Saurischia 蜥臀目
亚目(suborder)→ Theropoda 兽脚亚目
类<infraorder>→Neotheropoda 新兽脚类,Tetanurae 坚尾龙类 ,Avetheropoda 鸟兽脚类, Coelurosauria 虚骨龙类
  Maniraptorifromes 手盗龙形类,Tyrannosauroidea 暴龙超科
科( Family)→ Tyrannosauridae 暴龙科
亚科( Subfamily)→   Tyrannosaurinae 暴龙亚科
族( Tribe)→ Tyrannosaurini 暴龙族
属( Genus)→ Tyrannosaurus 暴龙
模式种( TYPE SPECIES)→    T. rex 霸王龙
时代( Period)→ 白垩纪晚期 late Maastrichtian
分布( Found in)→ 加拿大艾伯塔省 美国新墨西哥州 蒙大拿州 科罗拉多州 怀俄明州等
食性( Diet)→ 肉食
典型体长( Length)→ 全长15米 高约6 米 
推测体重( Mass)→ 6.5-7吨
发现者( Discoverer)→ 布朗(Barnum Brown) 1902
命名者( First described  )→ 享利·奥斯本(Osborn), 1905

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Family: Tyrannosauridae
Genus: Tyrannosaurus
Osborn, 1905

The species Tyrannosaurus rex, commonly abbreviated to T. rex, is one of the dinosaurs most often featured in popular culture around the world. It hails from what is now western North America. Some scientists consider Tarbosaurus bataar from Asia to represent a second species of Tyrannosaurus, while others maintain Tarbosaurus as a separate genus. Other species have also been described, but these were either concluded to be synonymous with Tyrannosaurus rex or removed from the genus.
         Like other tyrannosaurids, T. rex was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long, heavy tail. Relative to the large and powerful hindlimbs, Tyrannosaurus forelimbs were small and they retained only two digits. Although other theropods rivaled or exceeded T. rex in size, it was the largest known tyrannosaurid and one of the largest known land predators, measuring over 13 metres (43 feet) in length and up to 6.8 metric tons (7.5 short tons) in weight.
         Fossils of T. rex have been found in North American rock formations dating to the last three million years of the Cretaceous Period at the end of the Maastrichtian stage, approximately 68.5 to 65.5 million years ago; it was among the last dinosaurs to exist prior to the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event. More than 30 specimens of T. rex have been identified, some of which are nearly complete skeletons. Some researchers have discovered soft tissue as well. The abundance of fossil material has allowed significant research into many aspects of its biology, including life history and biomechanics. The feeding habits, physiology and potential speed of T. rex are a few of the topics which remain controversial.

Tarbosaurus (meaning 'Terror Lizard') is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that flourished during the early Maastrichtian of the Late Cretaceous Period. Fossils have been recovered in Mongolia with more fragmentary remains found further afield in parts of China. Two species, T. efremovi and the larger T. bataar, were initially recognized from the Mongolian finds though most now consider them different growth stages of one species. However, one authority has split the best known species T. bataar, into its own genus.
         Tarbosaurus has held an uncertain taxonomic position within the tyrannosaur family; it is closely related to the genus Tyrannosaurus, with some authorities considering it a species of the latter genus. Another study re-examining data determined it was more closely related to Alioramus.
Like most known tyrannosaurids, it was a multi-ton bipedal predator equipped with dozens of large, sharp teeth. Tarbosaurus had the smallest forelimbs of all tyrannosaurids, already reknowned for their disproportionately tiny arms. As an apex predator, Tarbosaurus was at the top of the food chain, probably preying on large dinosaurs like the hadrosaur Saurolophus.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Family: Tyrannosauridae
Genus: Tarbosaurus
Maleev, 1955

身高: 4公尺
身长: 10公尺
体重: 6～7公吨
生存时期: 白垩纪晚期
距今约: 7千5百万年前～6千5百万年前
发现地点: 蒙古
         亚洲发现的恐龙非常独特, 特别是中国、蒙古的恐龙实在令人惊嘆。要谈到特暴龙, 就先要从几千公里外的北美洲讲起。1902年, 一个跨世纪的大发现---一种当时最庞大, 最兇猛的食肉恐龙, 暴龙在北美洲出土。至今已经101年, 不过, 早期的古生物学家依照型, 推断出暴龙乃侏罗纪时期的霸主异特龙直接进化而成。在二十世纪初、中期的古生物学界, 暴龙乃异特龙直接进化而成的理论成了主流的观点。二十世纪末期, 考古学家依骨骼构造, 否定了暴龙乃异特龙直接进化而成的理论。不过, 至今仍争持不下的是究竟暴龙的近亲是什么样的恐龙?古生物学家根据身体构造, 指出暴龙最早源於三叠纪的空骨龙; 不过, 到了白垩纪末期, 暴龙的类似品种则分支成2种。一种是亚洲蒙古的特暴龙tarbosaurus, 另一种是北美洲本身的恶霸龙daspletosaurus。
         特暴龙是截至目前为止在亚洲发现过最庞大的食肉恐龙, 相信跟暴龙一样, 是十分兇猛的巨型食肉恐龙, 体型略瘦。典型的特暴龙身长较北美洲的暴龙稍为逊色, 约10公尺长, 最高可以去到12公尺。身高约4公尺, 重6、7公吨, 嗅觉灵敏, 相信跟暴龙一样是靠嗅觉追踪猎物的位置。这个品种在7500万至6500万年前, 在今天的蒙古相信很常见。美国最受欢迎的恐龙其实很可能源自亚洲, 因为在晚白垩纪的时期, 亚洲和北美洲在今天的白令海峡处有"陆桥"连接。所以, 亚洲的恐龙能够徒步迁徙往北美洲在那个年代绝对不为奇。
         特暴龙和暴龙的关系可以在古生物分类学上见到。在古生物分类学上两者属於同一个族, 分别只有很少。我们相信特暴龙可能是迁徙到美洲後再进化成暴龙。

Daspletosaurus is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America between 80 and 73 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous Period. Fossils of the only named species (D. torosus) were found in Alberta, although other possible species from Alberta, Montana and New Mexico await description. Including these undescribed species, Daspletosaurus is the most species-rich genus of tyrannosaur.
          Daspletosaurus is closely related to the much larger and more recent Tyrannosaurus. Like most known tyrannosaurids, it was a multi-ton bipedal predator equipped with dozens of large, sharp teeth. Daspletosaurus had the small forelimbs typical of tyrannosaurids, although they were proportionately longer than in other genera. It was probably similar in weight to a modern white rhinoceros or a small elephant.
As an apex predator, Daspletosaurus was at the top of the food chain, probably preying on large dinosaurs like the ceratopsid Centrosaurus and the hadrosaur Hypacrosaurus. In some areas, Daspletosaurus coexisted with another tyrannosaurid, Gorgosaurus, though there is some evidence of niche differentiation between the two. While Daspletosaurus fossils are rarer than other tyrannosaurids, the available specimens allow some analysis of the biology of these animals, including social behavior, diet and life history.
Description
Daspletosaurus torosus with a human for scale.While very large by the standard of modern predators, Daspletosaurus was not the largest tyrannosaurid. Adults could reach a length of 8–9 meters (26–30 ft) from snout to tail. Mass estimates have centered around 2.5 tonnes (2.75 short tons) but have ranged between 1.8 tonnes (2 tons)and 3.8 tonnes (4.1 tons).
           Daspletosaurus had a massive skull that could reach more than 1 meter (3.3 ft) in length. The bones were heavily constructed and some, including the nasal bones on top of the snout, were fused for strength. Large fenestrae (openings) in the skull reduced its weight. An adult Daspletosaurus was armed with about six dozen teeth that were very long but oval in cross section rather than blade-like. Unlike its other teeth, those in the premaxilla at the end of the upper jaw had a D-shaped cross section, an example of heterodonty always seen in tyrannosaurids. Unique skull features included the rough outer surface of the maxilla (upper jaw bone) and the pronounced crests around the eyes on the lacrimal, postorbital, and jugal bones. The orbit (eye socket) was a tall oval, somewhere in between the circular shape seen in Gorgosaurus and the 'keyhole' shape of Tyrannosaurus.
           Daspletosaurus shared the same body form as other tyrannosaurids, with a short, S-shaped neck supporting the massive skull. It walked on its two thick hindlimbs, which ended in three-toed feet. In contrast, the forelimbs were extremely small and bore only two digits, although Daspletosaurus had the longest forelimbs in proportion to body size of any tyrannosaurid. A long, heavy tail served as a counterweight to the head and torso, with the center of gravity over the hips.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Family: Tyrannosauridae
Genus: Daspletosaurus
Russell, 1970

         惧龙(Daspletosaurus)于阿尔伯它龙的年代分布一样，但个体更大，身体也较戈尔冈龙强壮很多，命名者根据这一特征将惧龙的模式种命名为肌肉惧龙(Daspletosaurus torosus)意为肌肉发达的，可怕的蜥蜴。将惧龙和戈尔冈龙比较便可看出暴龙类一支的发展趋势：身体增大变粗，头骨同时增大，下颌更加巨大坚实，能够附着更多的肌肉，咬力增大。惧龙是霸王龙存在“衣钵继承者”的最好的证据,它是一种大型食肉恐龙，它高大强壮，它体长约9米,体重约4吨,战斗力不亚于霸王龙！1970年，考古学家们在加拿大的艾伯塔发现了三具很完整的惧龙化石，后来在美国也有发现。惧龙身长9米，重4吨。头很大，下颌厚，牙齿象短剑。后退强壮有力，每条腿上有三个脚指头，但它的手臂软弱无力，每只手臂只有两个手指（这几点都和霸王龙雷同）。惧龙通常捕食与它一起生活的鸭嘴龙类和角龙类恐龙。

Gorgosaurus, meaning "fierce lizard", is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America between 80 and 73 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous Period.
          Like most known tyrannosaurids, Gorgosaurus was a multi-ton bipedal predator equipped with dozens of large, sharp teeth; it also bore tiny two-fingered forelimbs typical of its close relatives. Although relatively large for a theropod, Gorgosaurus was much smaller than its more famous relative Tyrannosaurus.
          It was first described by paleontologist Lawrence Morris Lambe, in 1914 Since then more than 20 Gorgosaurus skeletons have been recovered, making it the best-represented tyrannosaurid in the fossil record. In some areas, it coexisted with another tyrannosaurid, Daspletosaurus, though there is some evidence of niche differentiation between the two. As an apex predator, Gorgosaurus was at the top of the food chain, probably preying on large dinosaurs like the ceratopsid Centrosaurus and the hadrosaur Hypacrosaurus.
Description
While clearly a large and fearsome animal, Gorgosaurus was nonetheless much smaller than the than the truly gigantic tyrannosaurids like Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus, and significantly more lightly-built than Daspletosaurus, which it appears to have coexisted with. Adults reached 7 to 8 metres (27 to 30 feet) from snout to tail, with an estimated weight of 2.5 tonnes (2.75 short tons).
           It had a massive skull almost a meters (39 inches) long; perched on a short S-shaped neck. Wide openings in the skull (fenestrae) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs. Gorgosaurus has a more circular orbit than any other tyrannosaurid. It bore large curved teeth, tiny two-fingered front limbs, and powerful legs. Compared to the other tyrannosaurids, Gorgosaurus is most similar to its very close relative Albertosaurus.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Family: Tyrannosauridae
Subfamily: Albertosaurinae
Genus: Gorgosaurus
Species: G. libratus

         戈尔冈龙(Gorgosaurus)与阿尔伯塔龙十分相近。戈尔冈龙同样发现与北美西北部的阿尔伯塔和蒙大拿，生活于7千5百万年前，身长约9米，模式种为Gorgosaurus libratus。70年代科学家认为戈尔冈龙和阿尔伯塔龙为同属的动物，两者之间的区别是由个体及生长差异造成的。根据命名原则，后建立的“戈尔冈龙属”被取消，种被归入阿尔伯塔龙属下，成为Albertosaurus libratus。但加拿大古生物学家Phillip Currie的近期研究结果表明戈尔冈龙具有的某些特徵与惧龙和霸王龙更接近，与阿尔伯塔龙不是同属生物。戈尔冈龙这一名称得以保留下来。

Albertosaurus  is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period, more than 70 million years ago. The type species, A. sarcophagus, was restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta, after which the genus is named. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus, with some recognizing Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species.
As a tyrannosaurid, Albertosaurus was a bipedal predator with tiny, two-fingered hands and a massive head with dozens of large, sharp teeth. It may have been at the top of the food chain in its local ecosystem. Although relatively large for a theropod, Albertosaurus was much smaller than its more famous relative Tyrannosaurus, probably weighing only as much as a modern black rhinoceros.
Fossils of more than thirty individuals have been recovered, providing scientists with a more detailed knowledge of Albertosaurus anatomy than is available for most other tyrannosaurids. The discovery of 22 individuals at one site provides evidence of pack behavior and allows studies of ontogeny and population biology which are impossible with lesser-known dinosaurs.
Description
Albertosaurus was smaller than the truly gigantic tyrannosaurids like Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus. Typical adults measured up to 9 meters (30 ft) long,, while rare individuals of great age could grow to over 10 meters (33 ft) in length. Several independent mass estimates, obtained by different methods, suggest that an adult Albertosaurus weighed between 1.3 tonnes (1.4 short tons) and 1.7 tonnes (1.9 tons).
Albertosaurus sarcophagus with a human for scale.The massive skull of Albertosaurus, perched on a short, S-shaped neck, was approximately 1 meter (3.3 ft) long in the largest adults. Wide openings in the skull (fenestrae) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs. Its long jaws contained more than 60 banana-shaped teeth; larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth. Unlike most theropods, Albertosaurus and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont, with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth. The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the upper jaw were much smaller than the rest, more closely packed, and D-shaped in cross section.
All tyrannosaurids, including Albertosaurus, shared a similar body appearance. Typically for a theropod, Albertosaurus was bipedal and balanced the heavy head and torso with a long tail. However, tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits. The hindlimbs were long and ended in a four-toed foot. The first digit, called the hallux, was short and only the other three contacted the ground, with the third (middle) digit longer than the rest.
Classification and systematics
Albertosaurus is a member of the theropod family Tyrannosauridae, in the subfamily Albertosaurinae. Its closest relative is the slightly older Gorgosaurus libratus (sometimes called Albertosaurus libratus; see below). These two species are the only described albertosaurines, although other undescribed species may exist. Thomas Holtz found Appalachiosaurus to be an albertosaurine in 2004, but his more recent unpublished work locates it just outside Tyrannosauridae, in agreement with other authors.
The other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is the Tyrannosaurinae, including Daspletosaurus torosus, Tarbosaurus bataar and Tyrannosaurus rex. Compared to these robust tyrannosaurines, albertosaurines had slender builds, with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower leg (tibia) and feet (metatarsals and phalanges).
Discovery and naming
Albertosaurus was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in a very brief note at the end of his 1905 description of Tyrannosaurus rex. The name honors Alberta, the Canadian province in which the first remains were found. The generic name also incorporates the Greek term σαυρος/sauros ('lizard'), the most common suffix in dinosaur names. The type species is A. sarcophagus, which means "flesh-eater" and has the same etymology as the funeral container with which it shares its name: a combination of the Ancient Greek words σαρξ/sarx ('flesh') and Φαγειν/phagein ('to eat'). More than thirty specimens of all ages are known to science.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Family: Tyrannosauridae
Genus: Albertosaurus
Osborn, 1905

          阿尔伯脱龙属(Albertosaurus)是蜥臀目兽脚亚目巨大的食肉恐龙的属。化石发现於北美晚白垩纪地层，因出土于加拿大的阿尔伯脱而得名。它是一种早期霸王龙类。比我们熟悉的霸王龙要早八百万年就横行于天下，由于它身材比较小一些，腿部又长，因此应该是霸王龙类里跑得最快的品种,生活于约7千万年前的晚白垩世，身长7-9米。阿尔伯它龙属包括两个种：肉食阿尔伯它龙(Albertosaurus sarcophagus)和大阿尔伯它龙(Albertosaurus grandis)阿尔伯它龙头部粗壮，牙齿锋利，向后弯曲，后肢长而强壮，善於奔跑，是十分强大凶猛的肉食恐龙。一些科学家推测阿尔伯它龙可能以小群体的方式捕猎，群体中包括少年和成年个体。
         肉食阿尔伯它龙头部复原，眼睛前方长有小角状骨质突起，活着时上面应有角质包裹。阿尔伯它龙小腿比大腿略长，脚掌骨很长。

Alectrosaurus ("unmarried lizard") is a genus of tyrannosauroid theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous Period of Inner Mongolia. It was a bipedal carnivore with a body shape similar to its much larger relative, Tyrannosaurus rex.Alectrosaurus was much smaller though, most likely less than 17 feet (5 meters) long.
          The generic name Alectrosaurus can also be translated as "alone lizard," and is derived from the (Greek words alektros ("unmarried") and sauros ("lizard"). At the time of its discovery, it was unlike any other Asian carnivore known. There is one named species (A. olseni), which is named in honor of George Olsen, who discovered the first specimens in 1923 on the third American Museum of Natural History expedition to Mongolia. Both genus and species were named by American paleontologist Charles Gilmore in 1933.
History of Discovery
The holotype, or original specimen, of Alectrosaurus was a hindlimb discovered in the Iren Dabasu Formation of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (Nei Mongol Zizhiqu) of the People's Republic of China.The age of this geologic formation is not clear, but is commonly cited as the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, about 83 to 74 million years ago.
          More material, including comparable hindlimb material as well as skull and shoulder elements, has been referred to Alectrosaurus. These fossils were found in the Bayan Shireh Formation of Outer Mongolia, a formation which is also of uncertain age.It may possibly extend into the early Campanian, but recent estimates suggest it was deposited from Cenomanian through Santonian times.Iren Dabasu and Bayan Shireh dinosaur faunas are similar (but see,which claims the Iren Dabasu is probably Campanian-Maastrichtian in age and possibly correlated with the Nemegt Formation) so it is not surprising that a species of Alectrosaurus would be found there.
          Furthermore, several more partial skeletons may have been found in both Inner and Outer Mongolia.These remain undescribed as of early 2007.
Taxonomy
Alectrosaurus is undoubtedly a tyrannosauroid, but due to its fragmentary nature, there is presently very little confidence in restoring its relationships with other tyrannosauroids and many recent cladistic analyses have omitted it altogether. One study recovered Alectrosaurus at no less than eight equally parsimonious positions in a tyrannosauroid cladogram. 
         Alectrosaurus was originally characterized as a long-armed theropod, but this was due to the mistaken association of segnosaur forelimb elements.The remaining material represents the hindlimb of a true tyrannosauroid, although characterized by the low ratio between the length of its tibia and femur, meaning that both bones are about the same size, as opposed to most other tyrannosauroids, where the tibia is usually longer. The hindfoot (and ankle) are also closer in size to the tibia than most tyrannosauroids, where the foot is usually longer.
         The Bayan Shireh material may or may not belong to this genus, and needs further study. One cladistic analysis showed that the two sets of specimens group together exclusive of any other taxa, so they are probably at least closely related, if not the same species.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Superfamily: Tyrannosauroidea
Genus: Alectrosaurus
Species: A. olseni

        鹰龙（Alectrosaurus）也称独龙，是兽脚亚目（Theropoda）、肉食龙次亚目（Carnosauria）、暴龙科（Tyrannosauridae）的一个属。肉食性，体长约6米，生活在白垩纪晚期，主要分布在中国和蒙古。化石标本于1990年由中加恐龙考察队发现。独龙是一种纤细、小中型的暴龙类，与其它暴龙类相比较，第三足指骨较第三掌骨要短的多。

Eotyrannus ("dawn tyrant") was a tyrannosauroid theropod dinosaur hailing from the Early Cretaceous Wessex Formation beds, included in Wealden Group, located in the southwest coast of the Isle of Wight, United Kingdom. The remains, consisting of assorted skull, axial skeleton and apendicular skeleton elements, from a juvenile or subadult, found in a plant debris clay bed, was described by Hutt et al. in early 2001.[1] The etymology of the generic name refers to the animal’s character as an "early tyrant", while the specific epithet is a mention to the discoverer of the fossil. Eotyrannus is a 6 meter-long theropod whose tyrannosauroid character is given by serrated premaxillary teeth with a D cross section, proportionally elongate tibiae and metatarsals. Primitive characters for Tyrannosauroidea are the elongate neck vertebrae and the long well developed arms forelimbs along with the undecorated dorsal surface of the skull, unlike the more advanced tyrannosaurids. However this animal, proportionally, has one of the longest hands in Theropoda known to date.
        This theropod would be a probable predator of such herbivorous dinosaur species as Hypsilophodon and Iguanodon. 
        E. lengi’s find corroborates the notion that early tyrannosaurs were gracile with long forelimbs and three-fingered grasping hands, though the large size of the animal either means that early evolution for this clade was carried out at a large size or Eotyrannus developed large size independently.[2] The find of this animal in Europe puts interesting questions to the purported Asian origin for these animals along with North American Stokesosaurus and European Aviatyrannis arguing for a more complex biogeography for tyrannosaurs.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Superfamily: Tyrannosauroidea
Genus: Eotyrannus

Aviatyrannis is a genus of tyrannosaurid dinosaur from the Kimmeridgian stage of the Late Jurassic found in Portugal. It was described by Oliver Rauhut in 2003. The name means "Jurassic grandmother tyrant". It is one of the oldest tyrannosaurs ever found, the oldest being Guanlong (or Iliosuchus if it is indeed tyrannosauroid).
       Aviatyrannis was perhaps a contemporary of another ancient tyrannosaur, the American Stokesosaurus. Aviatyrannis was even originally assigned to Stokesosaurus, and its fragmentary remains maintain the question of their synonymity open.
        Like other early tyrannosaurs, Aviatyrannis was rather small. The holotype, for example, is an ilium only 90 millimeters long. The type species, Aviatyrannis jurassica, was described by Rauhut in 2003.

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Superorder: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Infraorder: Coelurosauria
Superfamily: Tyrannosauroidea
Genus: Aviatyrannis
Species: A. jurassica

中文名称( chinese )→ 祖母暴龙
拉丁文学名( name )→ aviatyrannis
含义( meaning )→ 其拉丁文含义为"‘tyrant’s grandmother from the jurassic’."--来自侏罗纪的暴龙祖母[avia拉丁文乃祖母之意]。
目( order )→ saurischia 蜥臀目
亚目( suborder)→ theropoda 兽脚亚目
类( infraorder)→   neotheropoda 新兽脚类,tetanurae 坚尾龙类,avetheropoda 鸟兽脚类,coelurosauria 虚骨龙类,maniraptorifromes 手盗龙形类,tyrannosauroidea 暴龙超科.
属( genus )→ aviatyrannis 祖母暴龙
模式种( type species )→ a. jurassica 侏罗祖母暴龙
时代( period )→ 侏罗纪晚期 kimmeridgian
分布( found in )→ 葡萄牙guimarota
食性( diet )→ 肉食
发现者( discoverer )→ rauhut, 2003
命名者( first described )→rauhut, 2003